Transcription
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/029:44 AMPage iFUNDAMENTALS OFNGLISHEGRAMMARThird EditionTEACHER’S GUIDEBetty Schrampfer AzarBarbara F. MatthiesShelley Hartle
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/029:44 AMPage iiFundamentals of English Grammar, Third EditionTeacher’s GuideCopyright 2003, 1992, 1985 by Betty Schrampfer AzarAll rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior permission of the publisher.Azar AssociatesShelley Hartle, EditorSusan Van Etten, ManagerPearson Education, 10 Bank Street, White Plains, NY 10606Vice president of instructional design: Allen AscherEditorial manager: Pam FishmanProject manager: Margo GrantDevelopment editor: Janet JohnstonVice president, director of design and production: Rhea BankerDirector of electronic production: Aliza GreenblattExecutive managing editor: Linda MoserProduction manager: Ray KeatingProduction editor: Robert RuvoDirector of manufacturing: Patrice FraccioSenior manufacturing buyer: Edie PullmanCover design: Monika PopowitzText composition: Carlisle Communications, Ltd.Text font: 10.5/12 PlantinISBN: 0-13-013634-4Printed in the United States of America1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10–CRK–06 05 04 03 02
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/029:44 AMPage iiiContentsPREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiINTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixGeneral Aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixClassroom Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixSuggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixDegrees of Teacher and Student Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiInteractive Group and Pair Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiMonitoring Errors in Interactive Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiTechniques for Exercise Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiFill-in-the-Blanks and Controlled Completion Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiOpen Completion Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiTransformation and Combination Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xivOral Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xivWriting Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvError-Analysis Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvPreview Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviDiscussion-of-Meaning Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviGames and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviPronunciation Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviSeatwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiHomework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiUsing the Workbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiSupplementary Resource Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiiNotes on American vs. British English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiiDifferences in Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiiDifferences in Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xixDifferences in Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xixKey to Pronunciation Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxThe Phonetic Alphabet (Symbols for American English) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxConsonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxVowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxNOTES AND ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Chapter 1PRESENT TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11-21-31-41-51-61-7The simple present and the present progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Forms of the simple present and the present progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Frequency adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Final -s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Spelling of final -s/-es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Non-action verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Present verbs: short answers to yes/no questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12iii
fm ph/prs AZAR 39601Chapter 22-12-22-32-42-52-62-72-82-92-102-11Chapter 33-13-23-33-43-53-63-73-83-93-1011/6/029:44 AMPage ivPAST TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Expressing past time: the simple past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Forms of the simple past: regular verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Forms of the simple past: be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Regular verbs: pronunciation of -ed endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Spelling of -ing and -ed forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18The principal parts of a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Irregular verbs: a reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20The simple past and the past progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Forms of the past progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Expressing past time: using time clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Expressing past habit: used to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26FUTURE TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Expressing future time: be going to and will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Forms with be going to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Forms with will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Sureness about the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Be going to vs. will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Expressing the future in time clauses and if-clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Using the present progressive to express future time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Using the simple present to express future time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Immediate future: using be about to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Parallel verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Chapter 4THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PAST PERFECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414-14-24-34-44-54-64-74-84-9Past participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Forms of the present perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Meanings of the present perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Simple past vs. present perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Using since and for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Present perfect progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Present perfect progressive vs. present perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Using already, yet, still, and anymore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Past perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Chapter 5ASKING QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Yes/no questions and short answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Yes/no questions and information questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Where, why, when, and what time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Questions with who, who(m), and what . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Spoken and written contractions with question words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Using what a form of do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Using what kind of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Using which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Using whose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Using how . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Using how often . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Using how far . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Length of time: it take and how long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66More questions with how . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Using how about and what about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Tag questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -155-16Chapter 6NOUNS AND PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726-16-26-36-46-56-66-7Pronunciation of final -s/-es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Plural forms of nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Subjects, verbs, and objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Objects of prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Prepositions of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78Word order: place and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Subject–verb agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79iv CONTENTS
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/026-86-96-106-116-126-136-146-156-169:44 AMPage vUsing adjectives to describe nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Using nouns as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Personal pronouns: subjects and objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Possessive nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Possessive pronouns and adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84Reflexive pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84Singular forms of other: another vs. the other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Plural forms of other: other(s) vs. the other(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Summary of forms of other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86Chapter 7MODAL AUXILIARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887-17-27-3The form of modal auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Expressing ability: can and could . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Expressing possibility: may and mightExpressing permission: may and can . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Using could to express possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Polite questions: may I, could I, can I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Polite questions: would you, could you, will you, can you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94Expressing advice: should and ought to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94Expressing advice: had better . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Expressing necessity: have to, have got to, must . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Expressing lack of necessity: do not have toExpressing prohibition: must not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Making logical conclusions: must . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Giving instructions: imperative sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Making suggestions: let’s and why don’t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Stating preferences: prefer, like . . . better, would rather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007-47-57-67-77-87-97-107-117-127-137-14Chapter 8CONNECTING IDEAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028-18-28-38-48-58-68-7Connecting ideas with and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Connecting ideas with but and or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105Connecting ideas with so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Using auxiliary verbs after but and and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Using and too, so, either, neither . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Connecting ideas with because . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Connecting ideas with even though/although . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Chapter 9COMPARISONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149-19-29-39-49-59-69-79-89-99-109-119-12Chapter 1010-110-210-310-410-510-610-710-810-910-10Making comparisons with as . . . as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116Comparative and superlative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118Completing a comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120Modifying comparatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Comparisons with less . . . than and not as . . . as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Unclear comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Using more with nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123Repeating a comparative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123Using double comparatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124Using superlatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124Using the same, similar, different, like, alike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127THE PASSIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Active sentences and passive sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Form of the passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Transitive and intransitive verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Using the by-phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134The passive forms of the present and past progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Passive modal auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Using past participles as adjectives (stative passive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Participial adjectives: -ed vs. -ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Get adjective; get past participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Using be used/accustomed to and get used/accustomed to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Contents v
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960110-1110-12Chapter 1111-111-211-311-411-511-611-711-811-911-10Chapter 1212-112-212-312-412-512-612-7Chapter 1313-113-213-313-413-513-613-713-813-913-10Chapter pendix 1A1-1A1-2A1-3A1-4Appendix 2A2-1A2-211/6/029:44 AMPage viUsed to vs. be used to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Using be supposed to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142COUNT/NONCOUNT NOUNS AND ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143A vs. an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Count and noncount nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Noncount nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146More noncount nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Using several, a lot of, many/much, and a few/a little . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Nouns that can be count or noncount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148Using units of measure with noncount nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Guidelines for article usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Using the or Ø with names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152ADJECTIVE CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154Adjective clauses: introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Using who and whom in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Using who, who(m), and that in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Using which and that in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Singular and plural verbs in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Using prepositions in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Using whose in adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Verb gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Go -ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Verb infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168Verb gerund or infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168Preposition gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Using by and with to express how something is done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172Using gerunds as subjects; using it infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173It infinitive: using for (someone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174Expressing purpose with in order to and for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Using infinitives with too and enough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177NOUN CLAUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181Noun clauses: introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182Noun clauses that begin with a question word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182Noun clauses with who, what, whose be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Noun clauses that begin with if or whether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Noun clauses that begin with that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186Other uses of that-clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186Substituting so for a that-clause in conversational responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Quoted speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Quoted speech vs. reported speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189Verb forms in reported speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190Common reporting verbs: tell, ask, answer/reply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191PHRASAL VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Phrasal verbs: introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194Phrasal verbs: intransitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Three-word phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197Phrasal verbs: a reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198Preposition combinations: introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198Preposition combinations: a reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202vi CONTENTS
fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/029:44 AMPage viiPrefaceThis Teacher’s Guide is intended as a practical aid to teachers. You can turn to it for noteson the content of a unit and how to approach the exercises, for suggestions for classroomactivities, and for answers to the exercises.General teaching information can be found in the Introduction. It includes: the rationale and general aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar the classroom techniques for presenting charts and using exercises suggestions on the use of the Workbook in connection with the main text supplementary resource texts comments on differences between American and British English a key to the pronunciation symbols used in this GuideThe rest of the Guide contains notes on charts and exercises. The notes about the chartsmay include: suggestions for presenting the information to students points to emphasize common problems to anticipate assumptions underlying the contents additional background notes on grammar and usageThe notes that accompany the exercises may include: the focus of the exercise suggested techniques as outlined in the introduction possible specialized techniques for particular exercises points to emphasize problems to anticipate assumptions answers expansion activities item notes on cultural content, vocabulary, and idiomatic usage (Some of these itemnotes are specifically intended to aid any teachers who are non-native speakers ofEnglish.)vii
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fm ph/prs AZAR 3960111/6/029:44 AMPage ixIntroductionGeneral Aims of Fundamentals of English GrammarThe principal aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar are to present clear, cogentinformation about English grammar and usage, to provide extensive and varied practice thatencourages growth in all areas of language use, and to be interesting, useful, and fun forstudent and teacher alike. The approach is eclectic, seeking to balance form-focusedlanguage-learning activities with abundant opportunities for engaged and purposefulcommunicative interaction.Most students find it helpful to have special time set aside in their English curriculumto focus on grammar. Students generally have many questions about English grammar andappreciate the opportunity to work with a text and teacher to make some sense out of thebewildering array of forms and usages in this strange language. This understandingprovides the basis for advances in usage ability in a relaxed, accepting classroom thatencourages risk-taking as the students experiment, both in speaking and writing, with waysto communicate their ideas in a new language.Teaching grammar does not mean lecturing on grammatical patterns and terminology.It does not mean bestowing knowledge and being an arbiter of correctness. Teachinggrammar is the art of helping students make sense, little by little, of a huge, puzzlingconstruct, and engaging them in various activities that enhance usage abilities in all skillareas and promote easy, confident communication.The text depends upon a partnership with a teacher; it is the teacher who animates anddirects the students’ language-learning experiences. In practical terms, the aim of the text isto support you, the teacher, by providing a wealth and variety of material for you to adapt toyour individual teaching situation. Using grammar as a base to promote overall Englishusage ability, teacher and text can engage the students in interesting discourse, challengetheir minds and skills, and intrigue them with the power of language as well as the need foraccuracy to create understanding among people.Classroom TechniquesFollowing are some techniques that have proven useful. Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts are discussed first. Next are some notes on interactivity: Degrees of Teacher and Student Involvement. Then Techniques for Exercise Types are outlined. Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar ChartsA chart is a concise visual presentation of the structures to be learned in one section ofa chapter. Some charts may require particular methods of presentation, but generally any ofthe following techniques are viable.ix
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TEACHER’S GUIDE Betty Schrampfer Azar Barbara F. Matthies Shelley Hartle E NGLISH GRAMMAR FUNDAMENTALS OF
